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How Mosquitoes Evolved To Be Attracted To Humans
Not all mosquitoes are created equal, even if it feels that way when they bite you.
There are about 3,500 species of mosquitoes around the world, but only a few are responsible for spreading infectious diseases to humans.
Among those mosquitoes that are thirsty for human blood is the Aedes aegypti, which is the primary spreader of yellow fever, Zika virus, dengue and Chikungunya virus.
But how did Aedes aegypti mosquitoes evolve to specialize in biting people? New research published today in the journal Current Biology has revealed that two factors play a major role: dry climate and city life.
Scientists studied mosquitoes across sub-Saharan Africa and found that mosquitoes actually have wide-ranging palates.
“There’s a huge diversity in mosquito preferences. Some like to bite humans and others don’t like to bite humans at all,” said the paper’s co-author Noah Rose, a postdoctoral researcher at Princeton University in New Jersey.
“At first we thought that mosquitoes who lived around people would simply like to bite people and that those who lived in the forests wouldn’t like to bite humans,” Rose said. “We were really surprised that that wasn’t the case.”
While mosquitoes living near dense cities such as Kumasi, Ghana, or Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, showed increased willingness to bite humans, researchers found that city life alone didn’t explain the mosquitoes’ evolution. In fact, any mosquitoes living in large cities still preferred to bite animals rather than human hosts.
That’s where the second factor — dry climate — comes in. In areas with harsh dry seasons, such as Africa’s Sahel region, extending from Senegal to Sudan and Eritrea, mosquitoes evolved to have a strong preference for humans.
“Mosquitoes are dependent on containers of water for their larvae,” Rose told CNN. “So in places with an intense long dry season, mosquitoes become very dependent on humans who store water.”
The mosquitoes’ evolution to bite humans is a by-product of their dependency on breeding in areas close to human city life. That means urbanization in the coming decades could lead to even more human-biting mosquitoes in the future.
Urbanization to spark further change in mosquitoes
Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to see an increase in the total number of births over the next several decades, as well as increasing life expectancy, according to population projection data from the United Nations. That means a projected population increase of 1.05 billion in sub-Saharan African countries in the next three decades, for an estimated total population of more than 2.1 billion people.
The new research predicts this rapid urbanization will drive further mosquito evolution, causing a shift toward biting humans in many large cities by 2050.
“We should be watching these mosquitoes,” said Rose, noting that the future of mosquito adaptations is still uncertain.
“We don’t really know what will happen when the urbanization of sub-Saharan Africa moves beyond what we see in the present day. But we know something will happen and we think that it will be a shift to biting more human hosts.”
That means the way mosquitoes spread disease could also change.
If scientists and public health officials can be aware of how urbanization and climate change will affect mosquitoes, Rose said, people can be better prepared to deal with the changes in the way disease is spread.
But in the short term, researchers said that climate change isn’t expected to drive major changes to dry season dynamics that impact the mosquitoes’ behavior.
Mosquitoes can thrive in different habitats
It took more than three years for the international team of scientists to conduct the research and collect mosquito egg samples from a wide range of habitats across 27 locations in Africa.
“I was surprised that immediate habitat didn’t have much of an effect — mosquitoes in forests and nearby towns had similar behavior,” Rose said.
“We thought that maybe moving into human landscapes would be a key driver of attraction to human hosts. But it seems like mosquitoes fly back and forth too readily between these habitats for their behavior to diverge in many cases.”
Mosquitoes can thrive in a “mosaic of habitats” within the same region, which makes preventing mosquito-bourne illnesses an even greater challenge, he added.
“Even if you got rid of the human-biting mosquitoes in one place, there’s a huge diversity of mosquitoes in a habitat. They’re really good at solving problems and surviving in different habitats,” Rose said.
The World Health Organization has said mosquito control can effectively reduce the transmission of vector-borne diseases like Zika and yellow fever, but “mosquito control is complex, costly, and blunted by the spread of insecticide resistance.”
More than half of the world’s population lives in areas where Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are present, according to the WHO, and mosquitoes cause millions of deaths every year, making them one of the deadliest animals in the world.
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#LekkiMassacre: Soldiers Who Shot At Us Said They Were Acting On Orders From Above, DJ Switch Tells Canadian Parliament
LekkiMassacre: Soldiers Who Shot At Us Said They Were Acting On Orders From Above, DJ Switch Tells Canadian Parliament | Sahara Reporters
Obianuju Catherine Udeh also known as DJ Switch, has revealed that soldiers, who shot at peaceful #ENDSARS protesters at Lekki Toll Gate, Lagos, on October 20, 2020, revealed that they were sent to the protest ground on orders from above.
According to Sahara reporters, DJ Switch said this while speaking with the Sub-committee on International Human Rights of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development of the Canadian parliament.
The Dj recounted the incident that led to the deaths of about a dozen protesters at the Lekki Toll Gate.
She noted that the military opened fire on the protesters after creating a three-formation line.
Debunking claims by the Nigerian Army that soldiers fired blank bullets into the air, DJ Switch said the soldiers shot at them.
She told the Canadian parliament that she counted not less than seven persons shot, adding that one of the soldiers threatened to shoot her.
Recounting the October 20 incident, she said, “On October 20, 2020, we had spirited Nigerians there united with one goal against police brutality against bad governance.
“What started out as a protest against police brutality with the unit called SARS unfortunately degenerated into something I still find hard to reconcile within my heart.
“We got information that the government wants to see me and six other people and I remember saying to them that we have no leader and if the government wanted to speak with us, he should kindly come to the toll gate and address Nigerians because we have been out for eleven days.”
She added that the first gunshot was heard from behind, adding that it was chaotic as people were running in different directions so as not to be hit by bullet until it was announced that protesters should lie on the floor.
She continued, saying, “As we didn’t know where the gunshots were coming from and what they are about and then the lights went off.
“I remembered the military came in first, they stopped shooting at some point and I walked up to one of them and I asked why he was shooting at us and he said he had express order from above, and I was coming too close to him and if I come too close, it would be considered an attack on him and he would have to shoot.
“It didn’t take another ten minutes, the shooting started again. I remember seeing seven people that have been shot down and we were telling people on my live Instagram to help us call an ambulance.”
She also added that after the military were ordered to stop shooting by a senior military officer, the police were drafted to the toll gate and continued shooting at protesters, who were still at the protest ground.
She revealed that she has been in hiding following threats to her live by unknown people.
She said she initially thought it was an empty threat until she received a call that the military were trying to arrest her.
“I have been on the move because they have been after my life. The first threat came in, I thought it was a joke, I sincerely thought it was a joke.
“Just as I was leaving, I got a phone call that I should leave the vicinity because there are military men at the hospital.
“I had to abandon my home, I moved from people’s home, and then just to get out of Nigeria. I am still travelling, and I am not done with my trip,” DJ Switch revealed.
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Our Country is on Fire by Rhamsis
Our country is on fire and the causes of the flames are a combination of the activities of the government in their attempts to sabotage a righteous movement and the unhinged reaction of inflamed youths who are currently on a rampage. These understandably angry and incensed people assume that the destruction of private property is “fighting the system”.
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I am truly bothered by the huge amount of destruction of public and especially private property taking place everywhere.
While stationed at the gate to my estate yesterday as we were trying to prevent hoodlums from gaining access, a woman attempted to leave the estate in the heat of the riots. She had been told her shop had been destroyed and all her goods stolen.
We had to work hard to prevent her from proceeding to her shop I saw the grief on her face. I knew this woman has no other source of livelihood. She and her dependents would now be in financial ruin. I hope she doesn’t act in desperation. Less has led to suicide in the past.
This lady isn’t a part of the government, nor is she guilty of any of the injustices that we are calling on the government to correct. She is just someone who is trying to make a living. She is a wife, a mother, a grandmother, and a sister. She has groaned with all of us under the yoke of bad government. Now she has been further punished for crimes she did not commit Her life will never be the same – ever again To be clear, the reaction of the government to the protests is disgusting, shocking, and unconscionable. I will not lessen the gravity of this by adding “but”. I will respectfully wait till the next paragraph to continue.
The fight must continue but it must also be fought through righteous means Civil disobedience and peaceful protests are more effective than riots If things continue in their current trajectory, we will lose our moral standing and the government will win the moral battle. Our grievance is not with banks, shopping malls, or any other businesses.
Our grievance is with the government.
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Remember that this is the same year that the covid -19 has devasted the economy and caused large unemployment Think about the effect of continuing on this path of destruction. Think of your jobs and the jobs of your family members. THERE IS TOMORROW MY PEOPLE. We must think of TOMORROW.
Do we not all share in the yoke of police brutality Do we not all share in the perils of bad leadership?
Our solution cannot be worse than the problem. We MUST Not contribute to the problems. Remember, one of our major grievances is corruption. What is happening now is also corruption. IT is the corruption of what was until 20/10/20 a righteous struggle that was garnering international support.
The response to police brutality and corruption in our government CANNOT BE riots, looting, pillaging and killing of police officers.
The hand that gave soft drinks to the police officers did more for this struggle than the hand that struck them.
We grieve for all who have lost their lives in this struggle. Protesters and Police officers alike.
#STOP THE VIOLENCE. CONTINUE THE PRORESTS
I am calling on all patriotic Nigerians to calm nerves and to engage with the youth through any medium available to them.
This struggle must not be prematurely aborted.
The youth must be guided even as they lead.
Featured
US Vice Presidential Debate Holds Tonight
US Election 2020: Mike Pence v Kamala Harris – How their views compare ahead of vice presidential debate
It holds at 3am on Thursday morning Nigerian time (Wednesday night US time).
By Amy Coles, news reporter
Wednesday 7 October 2020 08:44, UK
The two will go head-to-head in a debate on Wednesday
A debate between US Vice President Mike Pence and Senator Kamala Harris is being touted by commentators as one of the key moments of the election campaign.
The pair are due to face-off in Salt Lake City, Utah, in a televised debate on Wednesday night in what is usually a low-key affair that has little impact on the race for the White House.
However, President Trump’s hospital admission last week with COVID-19 and his subsequent health concerns have made the event more significant for voters and observers.
Alex Conant, a Republican strategist who worked on Florida Senator Marco Rubio’s 2016 presidential bid, said: “Normally, the vice presidential debate is inconsequential. That is not the case in 2020.
“The public has so many questions about how we got here and it’s an opportunity for Pence to answer some of those.”
Democratic Senator Harris is certain to push Republican Mr Pence on Mr Trump’s health and poor record of dealing with the coronavirus pandemic, as well as the president’s relationship with Russia.
With such different backgrounds and policies how do the two compare?
Age and background
Kamala Harris
At 55, Ms Harris is much younger than Mr Pence and Mr Trump.
She was born in Oakland, California in 1964 to an immigrant family.
Her father is from Jamaica and her mother is from Chennai, India.
She attended Howard University before entering law school at the University of California.
She lives in Oakland and is married to lawyer Douglas Emhoff. She has two stepchildren Cole and Ella.
She is Baptist but was brought up with a mixture of Christianity and Hinduism. Her husband is Jewish.
Mike Pence
Mr Pence is 61 and was born in Columbus, Indiana, in 1959. His father was a Korean War veteran who ran petrol stations.
He went to Hanover College in Indiana and then studied at Indiana University school of law.
He’s been married to Karen Pence since 1985. They have three children together.
He is a socially conservative, ‘born-again’ Christian evangelical. His religion has influenced his policies on abortion, birth control and LGBTQ rights.
Mike Pence and his wife Karen at a festival parade in Indianapolis in 2014
Experience
Kamala Harris
She is an experienced lawyer and prosecutor. She began her law career in the Alameda County district attorney’s office before working as a district attorney in San Francisco.
She was the first black person and first woman to get the role. In 2011, she became California’s attorney general before being elected to the US Senate in 2017.
Mike Pence
He was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 2001 to 2013 and Indiana’s governor from 2013 to 2017.
Before entering politics, he hosted a talk radio show.
Ms Harris, 55, ran for the Democratic nomination for president
On coronavirus
Kamala Harris
She’s been very vocal in her criticism of the Trump administration’s handling of the pandemic that has seen over 210,000 Americans die.
In a speech, she said: “Donald Trump froze. He was scared. And he was petty and vindictive.”
She went on to say Mr Trump was “fixated on the stock market” and “caved” to the Chinese government.
“And here’s what you have to understand about the nature of a pandemic: It’s relentless. You can’t stop it with a tweet. You can’t create a distraction and hope it’ll go away. It doesn’t go away,” she said.
In May, she put forward the COVID-19 Racial and Ethnic Disparities Task Force Act to look into racial disparities, since BAME people are thought to be more adversely impacted.
Mike Pence
At the start of the pandemic in February, Mr Trump appointed Mr Pence to head up the nation’s coronavirus task force.
Like Mr Trump, he has downplayed the pandemic and taken aim at the media’s reporting of deaths.
He has said that panic over the virus is “overblown” and hailed his administration’s “success” in dealing with it.
Mr Pence has also downplayed a second wave and reassured Americans: “We are winning the fight against the invisible enemy.”
On healthcare
Kamala Harris
Ms Harris suffered during the presidential nomination race thanks to her position on healthcare.
She has gone back-and-forth on the subject, at times supporting free and subsidised care, and at others supporting continued privatisation.
At first, she supported Bernie Sanders’ Medicare for All bill – a government healthcare scheme that would have eliminated the need for private insurance. In January 2018, she said: “We need medicare for all. That’s just the bottom line.”
But in August 2019, she said she was “not comfortable” with the plan. She further backtracked, telling MSNBC she was not in favour of abolishing private health insurance for all.
Then she laid out her own healthcare plan, a form of Medicare for All which is a hybrid of both. A government-run system which still allows private insurers to operate inside of it.
Mike Pence
His religious views have influenced his work on healthcare.
When he was a congressmen, his opposition to abortion led him to head up efforts to strip federal funding from Planned Parenthood, a non-profit organisation that provides reproductive healthcare.
As governor of Indiana he refused to expand Medicaid under President Obama’s Affordable Care Act, eventually relenting when he was allowed to introduce his own plan that saw low income adults above the poverty line forced to pay premiums.
He has been criticised for the state’s handling of a HIV outbreak in 2015. He initially refused to introduce needle exchanges as it went against his religious beliefs. He relented when the number of cases soared over 200.
On immigration
Kamala Harris
She bitterly opposes Mr Trump’s plan for a wall with Mexico. She said: “Because I was a prosecutor for many years, including the attorney general of California, I specialise on trans-national criminal organisations. That wall ain’t gonna stop them.”
She introduced the 2018 Access to Counsel Act. It guarantees detained migrants access to an attorney.
In 2019, she unveiled a plan to remove the threat of deportation for undocumented immigrants. And she supported the Reunite Act to bring together families separated at the border.
Mike Pence
He supports Mr Trump’s plans for a Mexico border wall and for tougher controls on immigration. He’s called immigration a “security crisis” and has criticised Democratic candidate Joe Biden’s campaign, tweeting: “Joe Biden is for open borders, sanctuary cities, free lawyers and free healthcare for illegal immigrants.”
He backed Mr Trump’s travel ban and said the president’s executive order to stop those coming from Muslim countries was “constitutional”.
Republican ticket: Mike Pence and Donald Trump on the campaign trail in Virginia
On climate change
Kamala Harris
Ms Harris has long supported action on climate change, calling it an “existential threat that demands bold action”.
She supports the 2019 Green New Deal which would see the US go to 100% clean and renewable energy in 10 years and the Paris Agreement.
In September, she released her own climate plan which include $12trn (£9.2trn) in investment to create a clean economy and make the US carbon-neutral by 2045.
She also supports a carbon tax.
Mike Pence
Like many conservatives, he has repeatedly denied climate science and called global warming a “myth”.
He has also refused to call it a threat to US security and has criticised Mr Obama’s Clean Power Plan (to reduce coal plant pollution) which the Trump administration rolled back.
On guns
Kamala Harris
When running for the Democrat presidential nomination, Ms Harris made bold statements about banning guns in the country.
She said if she was elected president she would give Congress 100 days “to get their act together and have the courage to pass reasonable gun safety laws, and if they fail to do it, then I will take executive action”.
If elected she promised to sign an executive order mandating background checks for customers of any firearms dealer who sells more than five guns a year.
She also vowed to increase checks on manufacturers and close the loophole that sees domestic abusers allowed to buy guns if their victim is an unmarried partner.
Mike Pence
Like Mr Trump, he is pro-guns.
In 2019, he told gun activists at an event hosted by National Rifle Association: “I’ll make you a promise: under this president, and this vice president, no one is taking your guns.
“The president and I stand with the NRA because, like all of you, we stand for freedom.”
On law and order
Kamala Harris
As a district attorney and attorney general, Ms Harris has lots of experience to draw from when talking about her record on law and order.
At times she has been criticised for seeing to be too tough, thanks to her stance on non-violent crimes.
In the past, she has fought prison releases due to overcrowding, defended convictions of up to a dozen people after they were found not guilty and pushed for state legislation that would have seen the prosecution of parents of children who play truant from schools.
However, she has made lots of moves to bring about a reform of the justice system. She has a criminal justice reform plan that seeks to minimise incarceration, end the death penalty and solitary confinement, ban private prisons, get rid of cash bail, create national standards for police conduct and end mandatory minimum sentencing.
And she has a strong record when it comes to the Black Lives Matter movement, calling it “essential” and praising protesters.
On the issue of drugs, she co-sponsored an act to end the federal prohibition of cannabis and has moved to get non-violent cannabis offences removed from offenders’ records.
Mike Pence
He has long reiterated Mr Trump’s calls for law and order across America.
He pledged to work with the president to restore order after riots started following the shooting of black man Jacob Blake by a police officer in Kenosha, Wisconsin.
He said: “Too many heroes have died defending our freedoms to see Americans strike each other down.
“We will have law and order on the streets of America.”
Referring to riots and Black Lives Matter marches in some states, he said: “Let me be clear: the violence must stop. Whether in Minneapolis, Portland, or Kenosha.”
He has also lambasted activists who have attempted to take down controversial statues.
Mr Pence has called for tougher penalties for those convicted of drug-related crimes, doesn’t support the legalisation of cannabis and backs the death penalty.
On Foreign Policy
Kamala Harris
She has often used her background and upbringing to defend her stance on foreign policy.
Senator Harris is running on a ticket based around a centre-left view of foreign policy. She promised to support Ukraine in their fight against Russia.
And she has pledged support for the Uighurs and those in Hong Kong suffering oppression from Beijing.
She is thought to have a lot in common with former president Harry Truman in her desire to promote America and American interests abroad.
She is expected to challenge Mr Pence on Mr Trump’s relationship with Vladimir Putin and the administration’s handling of Russia.
She has expertise in this area as a member of the Senate select committee on intelligence which investigated Russian interference with the 2016 election.
Mike Pence
As VP, Mr Pence has travelled all over the world including Iraq, China and Israel promoting American interests abroad.
He was instrumental in persuading President Trump to keep American forces in Afghanistan “until we eliminate the terrorist threat to our homeland, our people once and for all”.
He has openly condemned Russia and Iran for their role in the Syrian conflict and has fervently denied any collusion with Russia during the 2016 election.
He is in favour of investing in the US military saying: “I just have to tell you that the provocations by Russia need to be met with American strength.”
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